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On the syncretism of TWO, comitative, and NP-conjunction in Southeast Asian languages: Implication on typology
Author(s)
Date Issued
2025
Citation
Chan, K. W. (12 Jun 2025). On the syncretism of TWO, comitative, and NP-conjunction in Southeast Asian languages: Implication on typology. 34th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEAL-34), Platinum Hotel, Jimbaran Beach, Bali.
Type
Conference Paper
Abstract
The development of coordinating conjunctions from comitative adpositions through grammaticalization is well-documented (Traugott 1986, among others). Heine and Kuteva (2012) note that some languages use the same form for the numeral 'two' (or a dual marker) and a coordinating conjunction. However, many scholars dismiss the polysemy of [TWO = conjunction] as "incidental instances" (Stassen 2000:16), leading to its oversight.
Our extensive database, comprising first-hand data from 278 languages (645 grams) and second-hand data from 829 languages (888 grams), reveals that this polysemy is more prevalent than previously thought. This paper identifies three syncretism types among numerals, comitative, and NP-conjunction in Southeast Asian languages, distributed across various language families.
The first type is exemplified by ruas in Tetun-Fehan, spoken in West Timor (Bril 2011), where comitative markers and NP-conjunctions share the form with the numeral 'two'. In Hahka-Chin, a Kuki- Chin language from central Chin State, Myanmar, net serves as a numeral 'two', comitative postposition, and NP-conjunction:
(1) Janaw coffee net, no lo-chin de.
1M coffee COM/CONJ milk want P
‘I want coffee with milk.’ / ‘I want coffee and milk.’
The second type involves comitative markers and NP-conjunctions sharing the form with third person dual suffixes, as seen in sná in Kammu (Laos) (Svantesson & Holmer 2015) and kisi in Waropen (Indonesia) (Stassen 2000). The third type is demonstrated by préi in Sedang (Vietnam) (Stassen 2008), where comitative markers and NP-conjunctions share the form with third person dual pronouns.
This paper explores the mechanisms and conditions for the grammaticalization [TWO > comitative > NP-conjunction]. Furthermore, we propose a revision of the AND/WITH dichotomy (Stassen 2000) to include a classification of the world's languages into AND-languages, WITH-languages, and TWO- languages.
Our extensive database, comprising first-hand data from 278 languages (645 grams) and second-hand data from 829 languages (888 grams), reveals that this polysemy is more prevalent than previously thought. This paper identifies three syncretism types among numerals, comitative, and NP-conjunction in Southeast Asian languages, distributed across various language families.
The first type is exemplified by ruas in Tetun-Fehan, spoken in West Timor (Bril 2011), where comitative markers and NP-conjunctions share the form with the numeral 'two'. In Hahka-Chin, a Kuki- Chin language from central Chin State, Myanmar, net serves as a numeral 'two', comitative postposition, and NP-conjunction:
(1) Janaw coffee net, no lo-chin de.
1M coffee COM/CONJ milk want P
‘I want coffee with milk.’ / ‘I want coffee and milk.’
The second type involves comitative markers and NP-conjunctions sharing the form with third person dual suffixes, as seen in sná in Kammu (Laos) (Svantesson & Holmer 2015) and kisi in Waropen (Indonesia) (Stassen 2000). The third type is demonstrated by préi in Sedang (Vietnam) (Stassen 2008), where comitative markers and NP-conjunctions share the form with third person dual pronouns.
This paper explores the mechanisms and conditions for the grammaticalization [TWO > comitative > NP-conjunction]. Furthermore, we propose a revision of the AND/WITH dichotomy (Stassen 2000) to include a classification of the world's languages into AND-languages, WITH-languages, and TWO- languages.
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